Addendum: The Electron Orbital
The Pauli Exclusion Principle allows for two electrons to occupy the same orbital. We used the property that photons are limited to two states of polarization, either horizontal or vertical, to model this behaviour.
But how do we visualize an orbital?
We will see that two aspects of our model are featured here. The first is the process of projection of particles onto the Vacuum Network (VN). The second is quantum foam, which expresses the momentary magnetic fields of photons circulating within electrons and protons. The latter plays a key role in structuring orbitals, in a very dynamic charge environment.
Charge in our quantum forest is quantized. It can be held by QESTs only for the duration of a single ‘tick’ of the entanglement clock.
This is a consequence of conservation of energy. Charge is the native currency of energy in the Continuum. Momentary charge transients arise in the Continuum, with net zero energy. As transients, they express a balance of charge excess and deficit. Being continuous, they must be momentary, otherwise such excess and deficit would involve infinite energy.
Finite charge transients in the Continuum can be localized by projection onto entangled QESTs. They appear to us as photons, with the characteristic pattern of alternating positive and negative charge. These are held static on entangled QESTs for the duration of a single clock ‘tick’. Conservation of energy requires that they propagate to different QESTs before the next ‘tick’.
Quantum foam plays the enabling role here, by establishing magnetic fields between ‘tick’s. These act to store the charge pattern, then restore it with the subsequent clock ‘tick’. The resulting photon propagates as an integrated charge packet.
We can visualize the rectilinear propagation of a photon in the VN, when no other local charge or magnetic fields are present. The charge pattern of the photon is planar, resulting in an orthogonal planar magnetic field. This precise structure allows lossless repeatability, producing constant speed and direction of photon transmission.
Such transmission can occur across entangled QESTs beyond those forming the VN. It also occurs in QESTs entangled as local spacetimes orthogonal to the VN. In combination with photons, locally entangled QESTs form particles such as the electron.
The electron is comprised of a neutrino and a circulating photon. We visualized the electron’s local geometry, formed by the entangled QESTs of the neutrino, as a cavity resonator. QESTs on the surface express net charge from the oriented photon.
The circulating photon, as a moving charge, expresses instantaneous magnetic fields in the quantum foam. Quantum foam has no coherent metric, but it does interact with QESTs of the VN, with every momentary ‘tick’. The result is a field with dimensional extent, giving the electron a static charge field and magnetic moment in the VN.
This process constitutes “projection”. We see the electron as a dimensionless point, possessing static mass, charge, magnetic moment and inherent spin.
Through projection, we can visualize how the static charge and magnetic field in the VN arise from “strobing” of the charge moving within the electron’s local spacetime. Charge in the VN arises through magnetic fields momentarily restoring charge to QESTs of the VN.
Not being a balanced charge packet, the electron’s charge field in the VN can not be transmitted as a self-sustaining photon. It forms a static field that propagates outward at light speed.
Particle mass and spin also arise from “strobing”, but these involve entanglement with QESTs of the VN.
In all cases, energy is projected onto individual QESTs of the VN for only a single ‘tick’. Otherwise, energy transfer would occur, and the particle would gradually lose its static properties.
How does this model apply, when an electron is projected into the charge field of the much more massive proton? The stability and high degree of symmetry of the hydrogen atom give us clues to this process.
If repeated projections of the electron were to form a coherent, connected pattern, we would see a local flux of moving charge, expressing a magnetic field in the VN. But in its ground state, the hydrogen atom has no net magnetic moment, with no contribution to angular momentum from the electron.
We can now visualize how repeated electron projection must occur. It is a process of random projection with spherical symmetry within the charge field of the proton.
The result constitutes the net charge field of the electron, forming a 1s orbital. It has radial variation, but no net coherent charge flux, and no net magnetic moment. The proton’s spherical charge symmetry is the guiding influence on the orbital geometry of an electron of the hydrogen atom, in the ground 1s-state.
The 1s orbital has non-zero dimension in the VN. The net charge from this field is the same as an electron’s, as only a single electron is expressed with each ‘tick’ of the entanglement clock.
To summarize, the spherical symmetry of 1s results from repeated random projections of an electron. This reflects the symmetric charge field of the proton. From ‘tick’ to ‘tick’, the electron repeatedly localizes to produce a net symmetric charge, effectively neutralizing the symmetric charge field of the proton.
So, our first visualizing of an electron orbital involves no coherent motion of an electron in that orbital!
The hydrogen atom can absorb a single photon of a suitable wavelength, raising the electron to the 2s-state. This also is an orbital with spherical symmetry. In this state, the hydrogen atom once again has no magnetic moment.
In combination, the absorbed photon and proton must express a spherically symmetric charge. We infer this by direct extension of the 1s model, which is characterized by random, spherical charge projection, and no magnetic moment.
In the 2s-state, the orbital is removed from the proton by a spherical node which does not contribute to charge. How can we visualize the resulting hydrogen atom?
The absorbed photon must no longer propagate in a straight line. The combined magnetic fields of the electron and the proton induce a curved path. It still propagates in the VN, but its “choice” for which QESTs in the VN on which to restore the photon charge is influenced by local magnetic fields.
The photon path centers on the effectively static field of the massive proton, but it is strongly influenced by the rapidly varying magnetic fields produced by the random, spherical projections of the electron.
We observe in passing that this random variation in the electron’s position means there is never any likelihood of a photon circling an electron! Free protons do not capture photons in this manner: the rapidly varying, but symmetric, magnetic field from the electron is required.
As a zone with no charge arising from electron projection, the spherical node featured in the 2s-state is the most likely region for the photon to circulate.
Let’s assume the photon’s orbital path is described in one wavelength. A single electron is projected with each orbit of such a photon. Projection locates the electron randomly within a spherically symmetric region (as determined by the proton’s spherical charge symmetry).
The combined electron and proton magnetic fields must shape the photon’s curved magnetic field in the quantum foam.
But we can imagine the direction of photon propagation being perturbed by the electron’s randomly located projection. Over many orbits, the photon will describe a fairly uniform, spherical path. The result is a zone of net zero charge, but rapidly varying magnetic fields.
This must produce a shielding effect that influences electron projection. The radius of the 2s orbital, while still spherical about the proton, is roughly 5 times that of the 1s orbital.
If more photons of longer wavelength are absorbed, further nodes of shielding develop further out from the proton. The electron in higher s-states projects within spherical bands of radius determined by these photon orbits.
Electron projection is concentrated beyond the outermost node. This is not what we might predict based on charge alone, as the proton charge is more effectively shielded there.
But stability may provide a clue. Electron projection must be a function of the surface area of the inner node neighbouring the projection region. To maintain stability of the 2s orbital, more projection appears in the outermost region, but some is essential to maintain the inner node. We would predict the proportion is a function of node surface area.
What about orbitals when more than one proton is present in the nucleus? Perfect spherical symmetry of the combined proton charge will not occur. There will also be dynamic effects from relative motion of the protons (more specifically, the projection of quarks expressing charge within the protons).
Our model would predict that electron projection will reflect this asymmetry. In general terms, we expect that the greater the departure from spherical symmetry, the less symmetry in electron orbitals. But photon absorption forming nodal structures should still occur.
Our model for the Pauli Exclusion Principle specifies that, in atoms with more than one proton, two electrons can occupy the same orbital. But their component photons must have opposite polarity. Both electrons are projected at random locations within the orbital, but with perfect simultaneity. Being of opposite polarity, the magnetic fields are orthogonal, and don’t interfere directly. Together, they may act to enhance the expression of nodes.
With the addition of the electron orbital to our model, a new challenge appears in the quantum forest. This is the path leading to structures involving entanglement and orbitals within the nucleus. To get there, we must explore further along the path labelled neutrinos.
Addendum: Electron-Positron Pair Production
We visualized the electron as a photon combined with a neutrino. The neutrino forms a resonant structure, hosting the circulating photon. The QESTs forming this structure are entangled to form a spacetime orthogonal to the Vacuum Network (VN). The orientation of the photon expresses net negative charge on the boundary QESTs.
As we imagined for the electron orbital, the electron is “strobed” by the VN, through a process of projection. Static mass and spin arise through momentary entanglement. Quantum foam expresses electric charge and magnetic moment. The charge field does not propagate in the VN as a photon, as it is not a self-sustaining alternating field.
We imagine a positron as an antineutrino plus a photon. The photon circulates with the opposite orientation to the electron, expressing a positive charge field.
With pair production, we can visualize how the chirality of an antineutrino achieves this orientation. Its geometry is the mirror image of the electron neutrino.
Electron formation occurs when the VN hosts both local high entanglement energy and a high energy photon. We imagined this as an example of particle formation occurring with the first ‘tick’ of the entanglement clock in the Big Entanglement.
Photon propagation is enabled by quantum foam. It establishes a momentary magnetic field that restores the photon charge pattern to a different set of entangled QESTs, with the next ‘tick’. This must occur to conserve energy in the VN.
Energy can also be conserved if the magnetic field restores the photon to QESTs that become entangled in an orthogonal spacetime. Conservation requires that this energy is projected back to the VN, with each ‘tick’.
Imagine now that we have relative motion of two magnetic fields in a high entanglement environment. The two magnetic fields restore two photons 180 degrees out of phase into a resonant cavity. Before the next ‘tick’, this cavity splits in half along the direction of motion.
The two halves are mirror images, or opposite in chirality. The photons propagate separately in the two halves: the positive-going one in one cavity, and the negative-going in the other.
The first configuration is a positron, the second is an electron. The two halves are resonant cavities formed from an antineutrino and a neutrino, respectively.
Pair production is observed when high energy photons are directed at nuclear targets. This configures a high energy photon in a region of local high entanglement. Such are the conditions we have visualized for pair production.
Where else might such pair production occur?
In the core of a star, there are immensely powerful magnetic fields and high energy gravitational fields. Electrons and positrons will be produced in abundance.
In the presence of a proton, the electron and quantum foam will mediate the formation of a neutron. As we will soon see, this can combine with a proton at the level of quarks. The result is a deuteron.
This is the first step in nuclear fusion. An antineutrino and a neutrino are the only additional particles required for this process. The fusion products are a deuteron, a positron, and a neutrino, precisely what our model predicts.
Addendum: The Proton-Proton Chain
Models for stellar ignition rely on two primary ingredients: immense gravitation, and an abundance of hydrogen. The gravitational force raises the pressure and temperature on a core of hydrogen sufficiently to sustain nuclear fusion. The proton-proton chain is the first step in this fusion process.
Nuclear physics details this reaction as follows: two protons (p + p) combine to form a deuteron (pn), a positron, a neutrino, and energy (.42 MeV).
We must add two side reactions to this model, both of which occur simultaneously. These reactions make explicit (1) the role of entanglement, supplied by the gravitational force binding the Vacuum Network (VN), and (2) the role of quantum foam in generating magnetic fields from moving charge.
As we visualized with our model of the Big Entanglement, the VN can relieve local excess of entanglement energy by forming neutrinos. The latter store the excess entanglement energy by forming orthogonal spacetimes. The neutrinos host no charge, and express no magnetic field.
But they do occur as antiparticles: a neutrino and an antineutrino. These are distinguished by mirror image geometry (opposite chirality). We saw this with electron-positron pair creation, which also occurs here as item 2.
The p-p chain requires creation of a neutrino and antineutrino in a side process which is purely gravitational.
The second side process is electron-positron pair production. The requisite conditions for this to occur are two moving charge fields in a local, intense entanglement environment. This is characteristic of a stellar core, in a star with sufficient mass.
As we saw previously, quantum foam acts with the VN to store charge fields with each ‘tick’ of the entanglement clock. In the case of pair production, charge is not restored to QESTs of the VN. Rather it is restored as two photons, 180 degree phase shifted, in QESTs forming a local spacetime.
The relative movement of the charges acts to “split” this spacetime into a neutrino and antineutrino, with opposite chirality. The phase shifted photons express an electron and a positron.
To summarize, we visualize the proton-proton chain as three simultaneous processes:
(1) two protons interact in a strong gravitational field
(2) a local excess of gravitational entanglement energy in the VN supplies a neutrino and an antineutrino
(3) charge interaction of the protons in the presence of a local excess of gravitational entanglement supplies an electron and a positron.
With our model of the neutron, we are almost at the point of visualizing the proton-proton chain. But we’ll need one additional step, involving quark interaction.
A neutron is formed from the combination of one proton, an antineutrino, and an electron.
We saw how in a neutron, an electron projects as a point charge to express an orbital around a proton’s up quark, and “flips” it to down. An antineutrino expresses the resulting static charge fields of the electron and the neutron’s quarks in its local spacetime, shielding all charge from the VN.
The two remaining inputs, a neutrino and a positron, are expressed as reaction products. But how does the deuteron form?
This is where we visualize our first nuclear particle interaction. The quarks of the proton and the neutron are effectively held in close proximity. We visualize electron projection as the process maintaining this union.
The electron alternates its momentary projection from the neutron’s “flipped” up quark to one of the proton’s up quarks. In a very dynamic fashion, this allows quarks in what are effectively two protons to overcome local charge repulsion. The antineutrino continues to provide the local spacetime that masks charged quarks that alternate in expressing a neutron, from the VN.
With each ‘tick’ of the entanglement clock, a proton and a neutron are simultaneously projected into the VN. We see combination as a deuteron.
The result is a stable nucleus. If it does decay, we would expect a proton and neutron (and the nuclear binding energy supplied by the electron) as decay products.
Our view of the proton-proton chain suggests conditions for maintaining this process in a fusion reactor.
A high temperature plasma of protons (or better perhaps, protons and neutrons) is foremost. Intense, rapidly varying magnetic fields would encourage electron-positron pair production.
Some mechanism is required to encourage neutrino-antineutrino production. In the absence of intense gravitational fields, perhaps focussed, momentary shock waves might supply the necessary local entanglement. Quite a challenge!
What evidence do we have for the alternating expression of the proton and neutron in our model of the deuteron particle?
A formula due to A Bohr and B Mottelson (A New Exposition of Nuclear Physics: Nuclear Structure 1969) provides a strong indication. It allows calculation of the rate of rotation of the deuteron from nuclear energy levels and the moment of inertia.
And the result is fantastically large, on the order of several billion trillion rotations per second.
If we interpret the alternating expression of the proton and neutron as an effective rotation, then this value seems quite plausible. A similar result is obtained when applied to the alpha particle.
This may in fact be our first direct evidence of the rate of ‘ticking’ for the global entanglement clock. This coordinates all expressions of energy in the quantum forest. With each ‘tick’, the proton alternates to a neutron, and back again with the subsequent ’tick’.
Addendum: The Structure of the Proton
A proton is some 1800 times heavier than an electron. It has a correspondingly smaller magnetic moment. They have opposite charges that are equal in magnitude.
Particle physics models the proton as two up quarks and one down quark. They are ‘held’ in the proton through the nuclear strong force.
The quarks have net charge +2/3, +2/3 and -1/3, respectively. Up quarks differ from down not only in charge, but also in mass and magnetic moment. The down quark is more than twice as massive as an up.
We visualized the three quarks of a proton as a single, lobed structure formed by entangled QESTs. These QESTs express a spacetime that, as a Hilbert space, is orthogonal to the Vacuum Network (VN). A single photon circulates in this spacetime.
With only one photon, how can such different quarks arise?
In our model, static mass arises from momentary entanglement of local spacetimes with QESTs of the VN. With every ‘tick’ of the entanglement clock, the VN “strobes” the three quarks simultaneously. Through entanglement, the down quark registers more than twice as much mass as each up quark.
We assume QESTs express entanglement, both in the VN and in local spacetimes, as a gravitational field. We can now imagine the QESTs in a down quark with twice the local entanglement as an up. It forms a gravitationally more “dense” local spacetime.
How will this influence the charge and magnetic moment expressed by each quark? The role of quantum foam, and the reflective properties of light, provide an answer.
The charge of the single circulating photon is expressed across boundary QESTs that become momentarily entangled with the VN. To support this charge expression, quantum foam establishes a magnetic field in the VN, and the local spacetime.
The field magnitude is in proportion to the expressed charge. Up quarks, with greater charge, have larger and opposite magnetic moment to the down quark, as we would predict.
We saw with our model of electron-positron pair production that charge sign is determined by the phase of the circulating photon. Phase determines the photon’s orientation on the boundary QESTs. To express a negative charge, the phase in the down quark must be shifted by 180 degrees relative to the up.
Phase shifting can result from internal refection between media of different densities. Here the reflection arises from the higher “density” of entangled QESTs in the down quark. The higher gravitational field internal to a down quark forms a higher "density" domain of QESTs, relative to an up quark.
We can imagine the photon expressing charge on twice the number of QESTs in an up quark versus a down, if it spends the same amount of (local) time in each of the three quarks. The charge is positive in the up quarks, and after a phase shift, negative in the down quark.
With each circuit, the net charge expression is plus one. The strong force between the quarks is the expression of local entanglement, which is gravitational in nature.
Addendum: Quark Formation
With our model of the electron, we visualized a photon circulating over QESTs entangled in a local spacetime. We imagined the geometry of this spacetime as a symmetric cavity. Within this cavity, the photon resonates in a transverse mode. This circulation expresses charge on QESTs forming the cavity surface.
This local charge is expressed in the Vacuum Network (VN) through the process of “projection”. With each ‘tick’ of the global entanglement clock, all energy is momentarily ‘strobed’ in the VN. Projection is fundamental to energy conservation in the quantum forest.
The energy of entanglement forming an electron’s local spacetime is strobed in the VN as static mass. Similarly, all energy of the circulating photon is strobed as charge. This energy expression must be complete, to ensure conservation of energy in the VN.
How does this model apply to the proton, and the formation of quarks?
The proton is much more massive than an electron, with the same magnitude of net charge energy. The larger mass indicates a greater number of locally entangled QESTs forming the proton. How does this extra mass contribute to the formation of quarks?
We imagined that, like all other particles in the instant of the Big Entanglement, protons formed as a result of the VN isolating excess charge and entanglement. For all particles (including DM particles), this energy was expressed in the simplest geometric structure possible: a single resonant cavity.
But in the case of the proton, energy conservation forces a change to this symmetry, with the next ‘tick’ of the entanglement clock.
A photon circulates by establishing a momentary magnetic field that restores charge to different entangled QESTs, with each ‘tick’ of the local clock. Each local spacetime, as an orthogonal Hilbert space, has such a clock that indexes state changes. Local clocks are independent of the global clock indexing the VN.
Through quantum foam, the photon’s magnetic field instantaneously restores charge. This charge energy must project completely onto the VN with the next ‘tick’ of the global VN clock. No energy can be isolated internally to the spacetime hosting the newly formed proton.
This energy constraint is resolved in a very dynamic fashion.
With the next global ‘tick’, the initial symmetric structure transforms to one with greater local surface area. Three quarks are formed to express this greater surface area.
The majority of the entanglement energy remains in the heavier, down quark. Two up quarks are formed to divide the remaining mass. In combination they provide QESTs with sufficient surface area to express all the charge energy of the circulating photon.
The photon spends equal time in the three quarks. Internal reflection occurs across the energy gradient formed from QESTs with higher entanglement energy in the down quark. This shifts the phase of the photon between the two up quarks and the down quark, resulting in opposite charge expression. Charge is expressed across relatively more boundary QESTs of the up quarks.
With the first ‘tick’ of the global entanglement clock, the symmetric ‘proto’ particle is transformed to a proton. Energy conservation gives rise to a composite structure of three quarks bound by local entanglement. A single photon circulates between them. Two express lesser mass and greater, but opposite, charge to the third.
Addendum: The Weak Nuclear Force
Particle physics labels the force binding nucleons within the nucleus as the Weak Force. It has limited range, about the diameter of a proton. With our model of the quantum forest, how can we visualize this force?
We have many clues from our models of the proton, neutron and deuteron. The Weak Force is a primarily an expression of momentary charge attraction, which limits its range and strength.
It requires a rapidly varying magnetic field to express the attractive interaction. We will see that the magnetic field arises in both the Vacuum Network (VN), and in a local spacetimes hosting nucleons. Quantum foam plays, once again, the key roles of maintaining structure, and enabling charge interaction.
To model the Weak Force, we must visualize how the neutron can interact with the charge field of a proton. The latter field is expressed in the VN.
Our model of the proton, with its two up quarks and one down, highlighted the effect of the greater mass of the down quark. Greater mass results from higher local gravitational entanglement. This explained the lower, and opposite, charge of a down quark relative to an up quark.
The neutron has two down quarks, but does not exhibit the much higher mass that we might expect. We modelled the effect of an electron, projected into an orbital around one of the up quarks. It appears to ‘flip’ this to a down quark but does not increase the quark’s mass.
Our model of the neutrino will help us visualize how a dynamic interaction occurs between these particles. Recall how, in forming a neutron, a neutrino establishes a local “host” spacetime. The quarks and orbiting electron interior to this spacetime appear as point particles, through the process of projection.
By capturing the locally expanding charge fields of the proton and electron that it hosts, the neutrino “shields” the VN from charge. Magnetic fields continue to be expressed in the VN, but without expressing a net charge. The VN sees the neutron as a massive particle with magnetic moment, but no charge.
Now we can visualize a very dynamic interaction. Consider a neutron and proton rapidly moving in close proximity. The momentary magnetic field from the moving proton’s charge field expresses a momentary positive charge interior to the neutrino “hosting” the neutron. The neutron’s component particles include an electron, which reacts instantly to this charge expression.
The orbit of the electron is perturbed from the lighter down quark of the neutron to an up quark of the proton. The neutrino simultaneously projects around the point charges of the combined proton plus electron structure. A neutron is formed, leaving what was previously a neutron to express a proton.
This is precisely the mechanism that underlies the alternating expression of a neutron and proton in the deuteron. The massive spin rate of the deuteron reflects this alternating expression. It is indexed by each ‘tick’ of the entanglement clock.
Note how the resulting “Weak Force” only arises from close interaction of a proton and a neutron. In the dynamic environment of a larger nucleus with more protons, this “flipping” constantly occurs. It is best balanced by an equal number of protons and neutrons. The “flipping” requires short range interaction, characteristic of the Weak Force.
Heavier isotopes may occur, but the neutrons would be more loosely held. Radioactive decay to more balanced neutron and proton configurations will result.
Exposing a heavy nucleus to neutron bombardment will also disrupt the dynamic of proton-neutron “flipping”, resulting in the process of nuclear fission.
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